2011年美國最高法院在Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association[1] 乙案中,審理加州禁止暴力遊戲販賣給未成年人的法律,是否違反憲法第一修正案表意自由之保護,對於遊戲的法律狀態有如下之描述:「像受保護的書籍、戲劇和電影,視訊遊戲透過許多熟悉的文學工具,(例如人物、故事對白、故事情節和音樂),並透過獨特的媒體特性(例如玩家與虛擬世界的互動),以傳達概念以及社會信息,這種表現足以賦予第一修正案的保護。[2]」
Band Hero圖像來源:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_Hero
圖像來源:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Doubt
No Doubt樂團在2009年11月起訴Activision公司[4],控告Activision在沒有授權的情況下使用該樂團在遊戲中的化身,來演出其他藝術家的歌曲。事實上,No Doubt曾經與Activision公司簽下授權契約,授權Activision於其所設計的Band Hero'遊戲[5]中,可以使用樂團成員姓名、外表特徵、聲音、樂團標誌等相關權利。因此,本案法律爭議並非雙方未簽約,而是Activision公司超出No Doubt樂團成員授權使用範圍,且未經成員書面同意。
No Doubt與Activision公司的授權契約中,雙方約定授權人就No Doubt成員個人特徵利用方式有書面審核權(approval right)。[6]此外,授權合約中約定,在Band Hero 遊戲中Activision同意不使用超過三首No Doubt的歌曲,且須經過No Doubt 同意。另外,授權合約約定No Doubt必須參與一天遊戲軟體製作,以作為成員特徵照相、掃描影像、取得動態影像之用,使化身可以反映出樂團成員的外表、動作與聲音。
Band Hero發布的兩週前,No Doubt發現遊戲有「解鎖」(unlock)功能,該功能將允許玩家使用任何No Doubt的化身來執行遊戲中任何一首歌曲,包括No Doubt從未唱過的歌曲。No Doubt的成員中有兩個成員可在遊戲的第七級使用解鎖功能,而其餘成員可以在九級使用功能解鎖。No doubt還發現遊戲可將女主唱格溫•史蒂芬尼的頭像結合男性聲音來唱歌,男性樂隊成員的化身則可以用女性的聲音來唱歌,玩家可以利用每一個樂隊成員的化身獨奏表演,而不加入他們的樂隊或是其他樂團之成員。
No Doubt向Activision抗議,認為在雙方的溝通過程中,Activision從來沒有表示No Doubt化身可以有解鎖功能;相反地,No Doubt則堅稱,Activision公司承諾在Band Hero遊戲中,No Doubt的肖像只會被用在選擇No Doubt的歌曲。
No Doubt認為Activision已經超過當初合約範圍,要求Activision停止解鎖功能,但是Activision表示遊戲軟體已經開發完成,而不同意停止解鎖功能。No Doubt於是在加州地方法院法院控告Activision未經授權使用No Doubt的姓名、表演和肖像,構成侵害普通法與法規保護名人權[7]、違反契約、違反不正當經營等行為,請求法院給予損害賠償以及核發禁制令。本案曾移轉至聯邦法院,然而法院認為本案為合約問題,而非著作權問題。[8]
加州上訴法院認為被告Activision與No Doubt雙方間有合約關係,事實上已經排除第一修正案之適用。加州上訴法院仔細分析過去案例與本案,指出雖然在Kirby v. Sega of America, Inc案件中[9],憲法第一修正案的抗辯使得遊戲開發商可以在遊戲中使用流行音樂歌手的外觀,但在Kirby一案的遊戲僅利用流行歌手外表特徵,而重新塑造一個新的角色。而Band Hero則是塑造No Doubt的化身並塑造新的特徵,在遊戲中化身所從事的活動與樂團成員於現實生活中相當。那些在遊戲中,樂團可以在想像中地點或是因為遊戲所創造出的創意因素,並未將遊戲中化身轉化成另一角色。簡而言之,Band Hero並未創造出新的角色,因此被告轉換性使用抗辯不成立。
Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, 564 U.S. 08-1448 (2011)
In the case of “Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association,” June, 2011, writing for the five justices in the majority, Antonin Scalia cogitated:“Like the protected books, plays and movies that preceded them, video games communicate ideas—and even social messages—through many familiar literary devices (such as characters, dialogue, plot and music) and through features distinctive to the medium (such as the player’s interaction with the virtual world. That suffices to confer First Amendment protection.”
Writing for The New York Times on June 28, 2011, critic Seth Schiesel cheered: "It is now the law of the United States that video games are art. It is now the law of the United States that video games are a creative, intellectual, emotional form of expression and engagement, as fundamentally human as any other."
NO DOUBT v. ACTIVISION PUBLISHING, INC, 192 Cal.App.4th 1018, 1023 (Cal. Ct. App. 2011)
"This Agreement sets out the terms upon which Artist [(No Doubt)] has agreed to grant to Activision certain rights to utilize Artist's name(s), likeness(es), logo(s), and associated trademark(s) and other related intellectual property rights (the `Licensed Property') and to provide Activision certain production and marketing services in connection with Activision's `Band Hero' video game (the `Game')." The Agreement specifically provides that "Artists grant to Activision the non-exclusive, worldwide right and license to use the Licensed Property (including Artist's likeness as provided by or approved by Artist) solely in the one (1) Game for all gaming platforms and formats, on the packaging for the Game, and in advertising, marketing, promotional and PR materials for the Game." In a section entitled
"Approval Rights," the Agreement states that "Artist's likeness as implemented in the Game (the `Character Likeness'), any use of Artist's name and/or likeness other than in a `billing block' fashion on the back of the packaging for the Game, and the b-roll and photography or other representation of the Services or of Artist, shall be subject to Artist's prior written approval. [¶] Activision shall submit each of the above (i.e., the Character Likeness, name uses, and b-roll and photography or other representation) to Artist for review and Artist shall haveten (10) business days to either approve or disapprove. . . . [¶] Activision shall not be required to submit for approval uses of previously approved assets, provided such uses fall within the rights granted herein (e.g., using a previously approved Character Likeness depiction in multiple advertising materials).”
California Civil Code section 3344 provides in pertinent part: "Any person who knowingly uses another's name, voice, signature, photograph, or likeness, in any manner, on or in products, merchandise, or goods, or for purposes of advertising or selling, or soliciting purchases of, products, merchandise, goods or services, without such person's prior consent . . . shall be liable for any damages sustained by the person or persons injured as a result thereof." (§ 3344, subd. (a).) The common law claim for misappropriation of the right of publicity is similar See also Kirby, supra, 144 Cal.App.4th at p. 55.)
Activision公司曾經將本案移轉到聯邦法院,然而聯邦法院認為本案為合約爭議,並無優先適用聯邦著作權法之問題,而發回州法院。 See 702 F.Supp.2d 1139.
Kirby v. Sega of America, Inc., 144 Call App 4th 44 (2006)